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Track Endurance Cycling: Sports Science and Training Trends after Tokyo 2021.

INTRODUCTION

In December 2021, I wrote this article for the Shanghai Institute Sport. This blog article is the English draft. Below is the link to the Chinese Journal Article which was published in June 2023.

https://drive.google.com/file/d/139HRH6jQFdZnY9SdktQ-JIqL1DvLLEhE/view?usp=drivesdk

Track Endurance Cycling involves a hybrid of endurance, speed, power, technology and tactics. At the Olympic Games there are 3 events contested. Team Pursuit cycling with 3 cyclists for 4 kilometres and the Madison Race and Omnium Race which is 4 separate races on one day. In the world championships there are more events in Track Endurance plus the Individual 4 kilometre time trial for men and 3 kilometre for women. (1)

There is a huge amount of training information on the global internet about road cycling. But often specific training information on track cycling, and in particular track endurance cycling is less available. Countries develop new technology in secret. 20 years ago more research papers on specific training were available. One review for example was a summary of Germany’s program for the Sydney 2000 Olympics. (2) (3). Stadnyk  used the term “secrecy” surrounding the dissemination of information via research (4). At the Olympic games the technology used in track cycling has to go to market, but the cost is high and often out of reach of the public. A recent internet article valued the Great Britain Lotus bike complete at £30,408 (262776 RMB). 

NEEDS ANALYSIS

Examples of needs analysis in different sports are found in the research (5) (6). In Track Endurance Cycling there is a huge amount of data that can be accessed. Power, Heart Rate, Speed. The skills required and the tactics of each event also need to be taken into consideration. Added is the specific equipment from bike to outfit and how that all impacts performance and training due to aerodynamics. Then one needs to profile the athlete and do a comparative analysis with the demands and needs of the sport. I have added 3 videos in supplementary section. 

Team Pursuit cycling requires a static start. A regular change of racing positions occurs within the team during the race (the frequency varies between teams), and thereby a constant change in the aerodynamic drag on every rider. This was well described by Broker in a 1999 paper (7). It has been demonstrated in different investigations that the rider leading a pursuit team bears 100% of the power required to perform at a given speed, whereas the riders following benefit from the drafting effect, thereby reducing power requirements. A rider in position 2 performs at 70%, and riders in positions 3 and 4 cycle at about 64% of the power required for the actual racing speed. Thereby the challenge for a coach is to set a race strategy in such a way that the individuals contribute according to their capacities. Minimizing required power for a team or an individual in a team can contribute to a better performance. This is an area where significant research has been done. (8). Knowing individual aerodynamic characteristics of a group of different cyclists, the optimal arrangement regarding team efficiency can be estimated, resulting in time savings. At least as important is the determination of the individual power requirements, which then can be set against the potential capabilities of the cyclists. 

FIGURE 2: Below are 3 graphs of power and speed output for the Team Pursuit event

Graph (1) is from a 2001 World Cup Team Pursuit Race. The time was just over 4 minutes. Despite the world record being 3:42 now, 4 minutes is still a good time for many teams in 2021. So even in 2001, the event required power outputs were in excess of 1000 watts at the start. (Characteristics of Track Cycling: Sports Med 2001; 31 (7): 457-468. Norton and Craig.)

Graph (2) is a 3:56 Team Pursuit race from a UCI 2016 World Cup. This was for the third cyclist at the start. When he was leading, his power output was close to 700 watts. Average for the race was over 500 watts and the start for approximately 10 seconds was over 1000 watts. This time was close to the 2021 Chinese National Record. (Data from Strava Website for Harry Tanfield 2016 Team Pursuit Race. (Strava Pro Cyclist Profile | Harry Tanfield)

Graph (3) is a speed graph split into 30 second intervals. It is of the German Women’s team at the 2021 Tokyo Olympics. This graph highlights the female cyclist leaving the team at 2700 metres after several laps in front. She also started the race. So huge demands for her given she was number 1 at the start. Then spending a long time in front before leaving the team, impose huge demand on her energy. (Graph from B Xavier Disley, PhD (@xavierdisley) / Twitter. He is an aerodynamics expert.)

The tactics and strategies of how to maximize individual cyclists capabilities have been studied via mathematical modelling (9). In a paper published in 1998, Tim Olds established the relationship between the proximity of two cyclists and the VO₂ savings gained by the trailing rider (10). (see graph below). He found that benefits of spacing can be as large as 14.1 per cent with a gap of 0.2 m and as low as 6.8 per cent with a gap of 2 m. Significant benefits occur as long as the gap between riders is less than 3 m. There were many crashes at the Tokyo 2021 Olympics Team Pursuit competition. One opinion was that teams were both trying to minimise space between wheels and also keep their heads down to minimise air resistance, contributing to crashes. 

Graph from the “The Mathematics of Breaking Away and Chasing in Cycling. Tim Olds. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 1998”.

There has been a rapid improvement in the last 3 years in performances. Graph below is a record of race times since 2000 Olympic Games. Since 2004 the World Record has improved by 15.2 seconds. Half of that occurring in the past 3 years and a historically large improvement in 2021.

Figure 4

Graph from Antony Stadnyk (@antonystad) / Twitter. He is a cycling physiologist

A recent trend is to have less transitions and for cyclists to spend more time at the front. Also another tactic has been to employ an anaerobically gifted power cyclist to start early and shield the other cyclists from the intense requirements of the start. A 2017 study (11), “Qualitative Video Analysis of Track Cycling Team Pursuit in World-Class Athletes” concluded that longer transitions are related to poorer team performance expressed by a slower end time. 77 races in the 2017 study were analysed in the leadup to the RIO Olympics. The best time in this study was 238 seconds. In contrast the best 3 teams in Tokyo Olympics did 222 seconds. The New Zealand team of 2021 would overtake the 2016 New Zealand team twice! Elite teams are now attempting longer pulls and less transitions. The trend now is to use less transitions, to minimize the impact of time wasted at changes. Within 3 to 4 years tactics changed dramatically.

Developing cyclists and youth teams still may need to use smaller gears, higher cadence and in terms of team pursuit needs, develop skills for efficient transitions. There should be a long term progression in development of track endurance cyclists. Data from the IOC from the 1992 to 2012 Olympics showed the average age of medallists for Track Cycling was 26.2 and for road >28. (51) 

The demands of Track Endurance competitions require performances at the highest intensity. This type of program is seen at other international events and domestic competitions. The ability to recover is critical. Below is the Tokyo 2020 Team Pursuit Schedule

TOKYO 2020 TEAM PURSUIT SCHEDULE

1. Monday, August 2, 3.30pm – 6.30pm: Women’s Team Pursuit Qualifying/Men’s Team Pursuit Qualifying
2. Tuesday, August 3, 3.30pm – 6.10pm: Women’s Team Pursuit First round/Men’s Team Pursuit First round/Women’s Team Pursuit Finals         
3. Wednesday, August 4, 7.00pm: Men’s Team Pursuit Finals

Richard et al in their review on Optimizing recovery to support multi-evening cycling competition performances, outline strategies that can be used to assist recovery between events and days of competition. Strategies are required to enhance recovery between races on Track Endurance competition schedules. Strategies are required for recovery and training must be designed to develop the ability to recover between events within a day (omnium) and from day to day. (12) (13). 

The different Track Endurance Events vary with their energy systems contributions. The Omnium is held on one day, with recovery periods between 4 races. Race 1 is the Scratch Race (10km men, 7.5km women. Next is the Tempo Race (same distances). The third race is the Elimination Race, which features sprints every two laps, and after each sprint the last rider across the line is eliminated. The race goes until just one rider remains. Examples of a power profile of the final event is the Points Race (25km men, 20km women) is shown below from a 2017 UCI race. Cyclists need to recover between events and be able to reproduce high intensity efforts and maximal sprints, 4 times in a day and intermittently in each race.

Distance 25km. Time 32.42. Normalised Power-348 watts. Average Power-290 watts. Max Power-1332 watts. Cadence (rpm) Ave 108/Max 147.
Figure (5). 66 kilograms track rider Felix English. He was riding the omnium at the 2017 UCI GP Favourite in Brno and claimed 3rd place. Cyclist Felix English Watts for UCI track podium ride (stickybottle.com)

The Madison is a relay race of two riders in which only one rider is “in the race” at any time. The men race for 200 laps (50km) while the women race 120 laps (30km). In Tokyo the men’s Madison did 50 kilometres in 50 minutes. This provides an insight into the demands of the race given maximal sprints interspersed with riding continuously for 50 kilometres.

The individual pursuits are  4 kilometre for men and 3 kilometre time trials for women. Huge power output is required at the start of these races. The cyclist has to accelerate smoothly with good technique to conserve energy. Recently in an internet article Ashton Lambie outlined his outputs in winning the World 4 kilometre championship in France 2021. He used 65×15 gears or 117″ gear (52) and averaged 14.8 second laps. The graph below on the left is the speed graph of Filippo Ganna world record of 4:02.647 in 2019. Below is Ashton Lambies power statistics from the 2021 World Championships. Totally different methods used by these cyclists.

Time: 4: 03.237
Average energy: 523w (7w / kg)
Maximum power: 1,115w (14.7w / kg)
First kilometre: 627w
Second kilometre: 507w
Third kilometre: 488w
Final kilometre: 446w

Graph 1: Graph 1 from B Xavier Disley, PhD (@xavierdisley) / Twitter.
Graph 2: Power analysis: Ashton Lambie’s worlds-winning individual pursuit – VeloNews.com

BIONERGETICS and TESTING 

In 2001 in a review of Track Cycling, Norton proposed that in the 4000m individual pursuit, a contribution of 70 to 80% of energy from aerobic pathways and 20 to 30% from oxygen-independent sources was typical (3). When assessing a typical graph of a team pursuit graph below, cyclists spend a lot of time at or above maximum oxygen uptake. And apart from the Individual Pursuit races, the demands are intermittent. 20 year old studies from 2000 and 2001 reported instantaneous power outputs of 1000 to 1250 watts in the first 10 seconds. (3) (13). And reported power outputs fluctuating between 650 and 700 watts for the lead position and 350 to 400 watts when positioned behind the leader. Key sprints in the Omnium can be over 1000 watts (figure 5). In a 2016 World Cup Team Pursuit Race, the third cyclist was still reaching well over 1000 watts for the first 10 seconds and then nearly 700 watts when leading, and 500 watts average for the whole race. And this was a race that was 3:56 versus the world record now of 3:42 (figure 2, graph 2). In 2021, much greater power outputs are now achieved at speeds >65 km/hr. 

These power outputs are well above the athlete’s aerobic limits. This requires the use of the anaerobic energy pathways (ATP-PC and glycolysis). But given the intermittent nature of the events and the duration also, performance depends a lot on the cyclist’s aerobic capacity (41). The interplay of aerobic and anaerobic capacities is critical in track endurance cycling. There are other factors involved in track endurance cycling performance such as lactate kinetics, anaerobic threshold power, critical power and exercise economy.  But it is important to recognize the intermittent nature of these events. Below a recent power curve of an elite team pursuit team represents this clearly.

Teams are now getting close to 1 minute for the first kilometre of a team pursuit race. The first cyclist is working at intensities that approximate 1 kilometre time trials. Anaerobic pathways (and neuromuscular power) are critical components of current track endurance cyclists and the initial estimates of 70/80% and 20/30% may not relate to current elite track endurance races, in particular team pursuit. (14). Recent research has highlighted the fact that a faster start during the first 10 to 15 seconds can increase VO2 kinetics immediately. This potentially decreases demands on anaerobic energy until later in the event. (18)

It is outside the scope of this review to analyse the methods of assessing the bioenergetics in sports such as cycling. Greater contributions of the anaerobic system can be expected than quoted in early studies (3). Now there are greater speeds, bigger gears and cyclists using weight training to improve power for endurance events. This magnifies the reason to simply maximize both aerobic and anaerobic systems for track endurance cycling.

Hawley et al (12) in a review on the bioenergetics of Track Endurance Cycling used the term “mystery events” when examining the bioenergetics of many of the track endurance cycling events. Given the need to tax the aerobic anaerobic pathways maximally in these events, they concur that aerobic and anaerobic capacities must be maximally developed through appropriate training. 

Testing to assess training zones and to prescribe specific exercise prescriptions for the individua cyclists is needed for a training program. The gold standard in the laboratory is the Maximum Oxygen Uptake Test. Here the 2 ventilatory thresholds can be estimated and also maximal aerobic power. And these ventilatory thresholds, are often of greater significance in Track Endurance Cycling than the Maximum Oxygen Uptake Scores (42). Added is the maximal heart rate and other information of power data at stages of the test. Zones can then be created to prescribe training. Below are 3 zone and 5 zone models used by the Norwegian Olympic Federation to quantify Training Intensity Distribution. Elite athletes generally use a 5-zone model to prescribe training, whilst sub elite use a 3 zone model. (Note research studies also use a 3 zone model).

In the field a simpler test has been developed to assess FTP or functional threshold power. The FTP test is therefore deemed representative of the uppermost power a highly trained athlete can maintain in a quasi-steady state for 60- min (16). But the test can be done for 20 minutes and 95% of the result is the FTP. Thus, zones can be developed through this method. FTP is supposed to correlate with the anaerobic threshold and is a simplified test. But research is now questioning its accuracy (17) given it is a performance metric and aligned to the 2MM and 4MM thresholds whereas in elite athletes, these thresholds values vary. 

Jeffries et all in their paper recommend that laboratory-based assessments of B[La] parameters are used for the determination of Lactate Threshold, or that athletes are assessed using the power duration relationship, to derive a measure of Critical Power. (19) (20). Whatever the test protocol used, it is well established that there is a minimum maximum oxygen uptake a track endurance cyclist has to have. The aerobic system is the key foundation. But the Anaerobic Threshold often determines performance. The diagram below demonstrates how Anaerobic Threshold can change over the course of a season, whilst maxVO2 remains relatively constant. And it must be emphasized always that these energy systems interplay. They do not work in isolation.

Figure (): From Allen and S.S Cheung. Cutting Edge Cycling. (Human Kinetics). 26.

Mjulka et al 2021 study made the the following recommendations for Critical Power tests or a power-duration curve. A formal test protocol should include one sprint effort (i.e. ~ 10–15 s) and at least three maximum efforts between 2 and 15 min). These efforts can be completed in a single testing session, though it is recommended to divide field testing into two sessions over two consecutive days. Critical power is theoretically defined as the highest, continuously sustainable power output which a cyclist is capable of producing. In practice, people can typically only sustain power outputs at CP for around 30-minutes (43). The actual amount of energy available to a cyclist is important when riding at intensities above their critical power is termed the Anaerobic Work Capacity (AWC) or more recently known as W’ (W prime). 

Feedback from one successful nation in Track Endurance Cycling provides a simple method of assessing cyclists. They use results from 4 kilometre time trials and 1 kilometre time trials to assess the capabilities of cyclists when selecting team pursuit teams. This particular nation has an aim to have male cyclists <4:20 for 4km and <1:03 for 1 kilometre. Whilst they still conduct tests such as laboratory tests and Critical Power tests to guide training, these simple norms provide a practical and realistic guide that translates to performance for them.

TRAINING METHODS 

Polarized training is widely used in track endurance cycling training. (30) (32) (33). Polarized training involves doing a large volume of aerobic work, avoiding the middles zones of training, and then doing quality training at high intensity. This concept has been commercialized as 80/20 training. It is considered that too much training at moderate intensity (Zone 2 in a 3-zone model or Zone 3 in a 5-zone model) is fatiguing, but does not provide adequate fitness gains. For elite cyclists who train with high volumes, this can result in a cyclist who is then fatigued for subsequent high intensity sessions. These high intensity sessions are important because they drive specific adaptations. This extends to using Zone 6 for maximal anaerobic sprint interval training to improve capacity. And neuromuscular efforts (Zone 7) at maximal intensity of short duration, to build power and speed. Using Critical Power testing, the table below demonstrates how a cyclist could use the zones to apply the polarized training model. Depending on the testing protocol these zones can vary a little. For example if a cyclist uses the standard 20 minute FTP test they would use zones developed by Allen and Coogan (54). 

Zone 2 in a 5 zone model (or Zone 1 in 3 zone model) is an aerobic zone where mitochondrial development in slow twitch fibres is maximized. Stephen Seiler comments in his paper (23): “Endurance athletes appear to self-organize toward a high-volume training approach with careful application of high-intensity training incorporated throughout the training cycle”. Type 1 Slow twitch fibres are targeted. When oxygen is plentiful (during lower or moderate intensity exercise), muscles derive energy through the aerobic energy pathway. During intense exercise, when glycolysis rates are very high, lactate accumulates. However, this lactate can be broken down for energy via the ‘lactate shuttle’ pathway. The body achieves this by transporting lactate from working muscles to regions of the body where oxygen levels are higher. This requires training protocols working above and under the anaerobic thresholds to enhance lactate kinetics (24). These sessions are often called under/over anaerobic threshold sessions. They are designed to improvement lactate clearance.

How to improve your lactate threshold as a cyclist — High North Performance

Specificity
What is prevalent now is that most of this high intensity training is done in a very specific time trial position. A 2016 study “Effect of different aerodynamic time trial cycling positions on muscle activation and crank torque” highlighted the need for specificity. These postures are required to maximize aerodynamics (44). When cyclists train there are central adaptations (heart lungs) and peripheral adaptations (specific muscles being used). Training in a specific time trial position is also often used in high intensity sessions on the road and hills. The only time that track endurance cyclists work in the upright position is when practising the start of a team pursuit or working on pure power and acceleration. 

Interval Training
To embrace the requirements for events such as the Omnium, Interval Training has become commonplace in the training of track endurance cyclists. (21) (22). Rosenblat et al (34) attempt to categorise HIIT and SIT and investigate the efficacy of different protocols on time trial performances. Two forms of interval training commonly discussed in the literature are high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT). HIIT consists of repeated bouts of exercise that occur at a power output or velocity between the second ventilatory threshold and maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max). SIT is performed at a power output or velocity above those associated with VO2max. (34) Work-bouts of 120 s or less were defined as anaerobic interval (short-HIIT) for trained individuals, as the dominant source of total energy is supplied via anaerobic metabolism. For aerobic interval (long-HIIT), more than 50% of the total work completed should consist of exercise at VO2max. Therefore, long-HIIT should comprise of bouts of exercise that are at least 4 min in duration. Medium-HIIT would incorporate interval exercise that is between 2 and 4 min in duration. 

Ronnestad et al (21) (22), has found superior performance improvements in elite cyclists following short-interval vs effort-matched long-interval training. Below is a graph of a 3*13*30/15 intermittent session where Heart Rate stays above 90% for most of the intervals. This makes it appropriate for Maximal Aerobic Development. But each interval is done at a higher output than if it was a longer 4, 8 or 16 minute interval. Track Endurance cycling is stochastic in nature. There are accelerations and decelerations. Stephen Seiler proposes that these intermittent intervals with short rest may provide more specific adaptations for Maximal Aerobic Development rather than longer fixed intervals.

PERIODIZATION

The integration of how best to develop the systems underpinning peak performance is the next challenge. Periodization models for cycling are well researched. (34) Reverse periodization models, block periodization models and pyramidal. (45). There is general agreement that the reverse periodization model tends to be used more now (35). Capacity is generally prioritized before repeatability. Often neuromuscular power is also prioritized early in a program. The polarized model then also prioritizes aerobic development. Added to this is the need to develop general strength in the gymnasium. What most elite programs now use is an interplay of blocks of training. Blocks of training may prioritize endurance and specific physiological capacities such as improving anaerobic thresholds or specific strength via hill training. Or specific Velodrome training periods with blocks of training targeting speed and power. It is difficult to find current reviews such as the 2000 review of the German Olympic Team Preparation for the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games (figure below). Nevertheless this approach is slightly different than the current Reverse Periodization models now. But once can see a double periodization model here. With road races merging into speed training in May and June. Now there is more frequent interplay between stages of Basic Training, Road races and Specific Speed Work.

The reverse periodization model targets capacity first, then alternating aerobic and speed blocks of training, so that all specific needs are developed in synergy and build upon each other sequentially. What is always retained is aerobic training strictly done within the “aerobic zones”. The key aim in aerobic training is to avoid cardiac drift at aerobic intensities. Once cardiac drift is minimized the aim is to gradually extend the distance without drifting into anaerobic zones. Strategically, but not at high volumes. work at lactate threshold intensity and maximum oxygen uptake levels is placed within a program. The practice of alternating speed phases with specific aerobic development, road races and/or hill training seemed to be the mode in the preparation for Tokyo 20217. The speed phases were generally shorter than the aerobic, road and hill training phases. Different nations used varying strategies with some employing more time at altitude for example. But strategies were generally the same. The philosophy of alternating speed and specific aerobic conditioning training blocks is prevalent. Strength training is dosed almost throughout the phases. Some more aerobically gifted cyclists do more road races. When racing obviously they lower the volume of strength training. 

STRENGTH TRAINING

Strength training now underpins the development of Track Endurance Cyclists. Also core strength and postural stability. The cyclist has to maintain specific positions to enhance aerodynamics which require mobility and core strength. But pivotal to modern performances is the use of bigger gears. Given the bigger gears, the cadence numbers are less now. There is individual variation with cyclists and choice of gears. But suffice to say that strength training and the use of bigger gears are closely aligned in this era. The use of maximal strength training, unilateral training and velocity based training are all key components of the track endurance cyclists program. Also an individual approach is the key to optimally developing a cyclist. As mentioned already though, junior development usually requires skill development and the ability to operate at high cadences, before moving to bigger gears. So long term development is the key. Strength training for cycling is a vast area and I have added some references that the reader can access to learn more. (24) (25) (26)

Depending on the role in a team pursuit team or in other events, an individual approach has to be used to either maximize strength needs and complement endurance needs. The number 1 position in a team pursuit is now generally a powerful cyclist. A slightly higher emphasis on maximal strength may be required. But in cyclists in events such as the omnium or number 3 and 4 in the team pursuit teams, power/weight ratios and aerobic qualities are crucial. Whilst strength and power must still be optimized, the program must be individualized to minimize excessive weight gain. This again emphasises the individual nature of strength training in this discipline of cycling, a principle that is common to all sports.

Picture 1: Denmark Team Pursuit Team Picture 2: Italian team pursuit cyclist Picture 3: Australian Team Pursuit cyclist doing single leg press.

As noted there has been a huge increase in the size of gears used since 2000. As Faria noted when a harder gear is used, type 2 muscle fibres become progressively recruited. Type 2 muscle fibres have a lower mitochondrial density than type 1 fibres (29). The cadence requirements for cyclists in events such as the Team Pursuit have plummeted. It is difficult to quantify but this change in gears and cadence has influenced the training methods and the emphasis on strength training in the sport. 

Anthropometrics thus align with strength training. Lean muscle tissue must be maximized, bodyfat levels minimized. But for most track endurance cyclists, care must be taken to not increase mass too much. There is ample evidence of the anthropometrics required for road cycling, but not a lot for track endurance cycling. One key research was conducted in Australia on the female squad and highlights the low bodyfat levels in elite track endurance cyclists. (46)

Aerodynamics 

Farie at el noted that from 1967 till 1996, 60% of the improvement in the 1 hour record on the velodrome came from aerodynamic advances and 40% from higher power outputs. The World 1 hour record then was 56.375. Aerodynamics is a complex field. I have added 2 references here that adequately explain the changes to cyclist, equipment and postures which are critical in gaining aerodynamic benefits. There is also a wealth of information on tactics and drafting in team pursuit races and even road races. (47) (48)

The world record is now 55.089km, and recently Dan Bigham from the UK broke Bradley Wiggins 1 hour record at sea  level with 54.73km. Bigham is also an aerodynamics engineer and he made some interesting comments on social media recently. Dr Stephen Seiler posed the question. How much has power changed since 2000 when Germany won the Team Pursuit in 3:59?. Italy won in Tokyo with 3:42! Bigham did some calculations. He said there had been 25 watts increase (480 watts to 505 watts) and possibly a CdA increase of 20%. I have explained CdA later but simply put. His final comment was “aerodynamics improvements dominate”

Below are some definitions of aerodynamic terminology

1. Watts = Power being produced by a rider.  (                            
2. Watts/Kilogram = more relevant on the road where there are hills and changes in surface. The higher the number here the better.                                                                       
3. CdA:       Cd = The coefficient of drag (wind) A=How much frontal area a rider projects.  (CdA is more relevant on the track). The lower the CdA the better! Small adjustments in position on the bike and equipment can lower CdA.                                                                                                                             
4. Watts/CdA = Power being produced by a rider divided by the coefficient of drag multiplied by the frontal area of the cyclist. The higher the number the better! You improve both variables. Or increase Watts or decrease CdA. The big focus has been on decreasing CdA recently. 

Wind Tunnels can be used to research equipment, skin tight gear and postures in an effort to get the same or extra speed with less power output. (49). But these calculations can now also be done in the field and on the velodrome with recent technology (50). Below are examples of a cyclist assessing equipment and postures in a wind tunnel. And an example of an aerometer which is now used in the field to assess aerodynamics in more specific environments.

Wind Tunnels can be used to research equipment, skin tight gear and postures in an effort to get the same or extra speed with less power output. (49). But these calculations can now also be done in the field and on the velodrome with recent technology (50). Below are examples of a cyclist assessing equipment and postures in a wind tunnel. And an example of an aerometer which is now used in the field to assess aerodynamics in more specific environments.

Gears, Training and Specificity

In 2021 bigger gears are used. The German 2000 Olympic team used a cadence of 130/135 and smaller gears. The cadence for teams in the 2021 Tokyo Olympics was well under 120. Since RIO 2016 track endurance cycling has seen a bigger emphasis on bigger gears, strength training and tactics to improve performances. (2) (29) (37) (38). Much bigger gears are now used, which changes the training required and bioenergetics of the event.

This can be attained in 3 ways 1) Weight training 2) Hill Training 3) Heavy gear or resistance bike training indoors. There is a lot of debate on the optimal method to improve specific strength on a bike. (26) (39) (40). The author’s view is that it may be individual depending on the cyclists current training age and needs. Anecdotally the current world best Track Endurance Cyclist (Filippo Ganna) said in a podcast that hill training improved his ability most to use bigger gears and thus performance. But his coach felt that resistance training in the gymnasium had been more important in this cyclist’s improvements. There is general agreement that when training specifically (hills or indoor turbo) specific Time Trial positions must be used. This is  to ensure proper activation and development of specific musculature and peripheral adaptations (44). The other interesting factor is the use of the cyclists own bike on indoor turbo machines rather than products such as the Wattbike. Again this is to make the training as specific as possible. 

It is outside the scope of this review to explain the complexity of how to choose gears. But gear ratios provide a guide to how big a gear is. In simple terms, a gear ratio on a bike refers to how many times the back wheel will rotate for each full turn of the crank arms (pedals). Below is the gear ratio used for the World 4 kilometre individual record set by Ashton Lambie in Mexico in September 2021. Anything above 3 is considered a big ratio. Faria et al in the Science of Cycling Part 2 provide more information factors affecting performance, amongst them, gears (30).

Figure () from Website: A closer look at Ashton Lambie’s $30,000 record-breaking pursuit bike | Cycling news

Specifics of Team Pursuit Races in 2021

Below I have placed the results from the Men’s Tokyo Olympic Games. And the Women’s World Championships results. Germany women were faster in the Olympics with 4:04.242. But 4:08 is a better reflection of current women’s standards at elite. The Chinese National Record is 4:18 for women.

In the men’s race, one can see both teams are below 1:02 for the first kilometre. The first cyclist can often do over 2 laps now before a transition. Canada in fact did a radical experiment where they used a one kilometre specialist who stayed in front for over 4 laps then left the team. 

The cyclists are using a huge amount of ATP/CP due to high power outputs in the first lap. In the men the number 1 cyclist is also often a one kilometre cyclist, some being National 1 kilometre record holders. Team Pursuit teams spend a lot of time training on their stationary start. This is to develop a faster start, but also to increase the anaerobic power reserve (55). Thus the start becomes less fatiguing. This is because there is a bigger difference between their maximal power output for 6 or 10 seconds and what their output is at the start of a team pursuit race. The less energy used at the start for faster speeds the more energy conserved for later in the race. This was highlighted in 2021 by Rasmus Lund from Denmark. In the Olympic Games he was the lead rider. Very fast 2 laps. Huge fatigue levels. He left the team at approximately 2.5 kilometres. Their time was 3:42 In the European Championships he was used as a number 3 cyclist. They had 3 junior cyclists. Their time was 3:51. But he was able to finish the 4 kilometres due to being number 3 and also the slower team time. This highlights the fatigue induced by the first few laps in team pursuit.

Teams are now using less transition. Tactics are individualized relative to the team’s individual abilities now. How long a cyclist stays in front, and who finishes a race, is determined by their physiological capacities. 

The aim is for smooth acceleration at the start and getting to maximal speed as soon as possible. The term “smooth is fast” is coach talk. Lap times are as consistent as possible and little variation is required in transitions. Teams need to avoid the trap of decelerating and accelerating due to energy costs. The same principles exist in the 4 and 3 kilometre time trials. Fast start, smooth acceleration, and as little variation as possible in lap times.  

Usually the most aerobically gifted cyclist finishes the race. This is when the lap times may become mor variable as noted in charts below of races. In the chart below one can observe the Italian teams last lap of 13.1, with  Filippo Ganna  the lead rider. He holds the World Individual 4 kilometre record and is viewed as the leading time triallist over short distances in 2021. Thus the tactics are manipulated to minimize his fatigue early In the race to allow him to lead at the end.

There have been big improvements in Track Endurance Cycling since the 2016 Olympics. Possibly more than any other sport. Hopefully this review has provided some insight into why this has occurred in such a short time span.

Charts from:  Cycling Track | Tissot Timing and Home | UCI

REFERENCES

1. https://www.uci.org/regulations/3MyLDDrwJCJJ0BGGOFzOat#part-iii-track-races.
2. SCHUMACHER, Y. O., and P. MUELLER. The 4000-m team pursuit cycling world record: theoretical and practical aspects. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 34, No. 6, pp. 1029–1036, 2002.
3. Craig, N. and Norton, K. Characteristics of Track Cycling. February 2001. Sports Medicine 31(7):457-68
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June 15, 2023 Posted by Loris Bertolacci | Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Pallof Press Exercise and Anti Rotation Exercises. Why use them with Athletes?

Pallof presses are popular in social media. Till early 2000s though never saw them used. And I was an ok hammer thrower! If you type Pallof Press in Instagram search up pops heaps posts.

And then heaps comments like this post below “role of our core is to stabilise and prevent movement”. Later on hopefully we can suggest role of some of the spinal muscles is to stabilise the spine. But movement of trunk/core muscles seems necessary, otherwise nothing happens!

Below I have put 4 videos of different rotational exercises and Pallof presses. Obviously heaps more variation out there with medicine balls, barbells and machines. But in a multi joint rotational sports (most!), what is role of Pallof Press exercises and the anti rotation theory?

So even without trying to assess a Pallof Press place in a program, lots of questions should also be popping up on how to sequence rotational exercises. For example do we do the last video where the athlete just uses the trunk to rotate the cable, then move to exercise where Tsitipas uses kinetic chain. Then progress to using a medicine ball versus a wall at high speed. But object of this article is to assess the value of a Pallof Press and anti rotation exercises. And where they fit in.

Ok. So healthy athlete? Discus for example. How will a Pallof Press help this athlete? I could post baseballers, tennis players and many sports. Let’s just look at this. What’s happening?

So I slowed down video at critical point of maximum rotation. Generating torque, ready to launch. So let’s keep jargon simple. On landing and double contact, she starts by driving foot then hips. Creating disassociation. Trunk seems on stretch for want of better word. Thus one would assume obliques then recoiling and adding “ooomph” to throw. Then last little bit is upper body. Kinetic chain. A sequence. Coordinated and multi factorial. What are muscles around spine doing? Haha. Not sure. But assume it’s not totally static isometric hold throughout. And talking forces. Big! What relevance does a Pallof Press have here? Not sure. Obviously some of the spinal muscles have to maintain stability here whilst rotation occurring. I assume there is movement but stability at same time. But things happening very quickly also here. Instantaneous readjustments. So look at slow mo. Lots happening in my opinion around the trunk.

A bit of a google search for functions of some back muscles. Without getting complex. Lot going on. Not just stabilisation.

• Rotators muscles are a set of short muscles located laterally along the vertebral column, attaching between the transverse and spinous processes of thoracic vertebrae. As a result, the rotatores function as stabilizers, extensors and rotators of the spine.

• The multifidus muscles produce extension of the vertebral column. They also generate some rotation of the vertebral bodies away from the side of contraction, and they are also active in lateral flexion of the spine.

• The longissimus muscle is not one muscle, but a collection of three separate muscles that run up nearly the entire length of both sides of the spinal column, from the lower back up to the neck. The erector spinae muscles, including longissimus, are the most powerful extensors of the vertebral column. Their main actions include spine extension and lateral flexion.

The majority of the research with torso/core stiffness has come from Stuart McGill. 2 papers in particular looking at short and long term isometric training and core/torso stiffness. The first paper looked at a novel way to measure stiffness and incorporated isometric exercises plus variations such as Pallof Presses versus a dynamic core routine. Using their stiffness measure the isometric routine came up trumps. Second paper examined the McGill big 3 exercises and impact on stiffness. Links below and lots of cross references in paper. I think some valuable information in McGills work on stiffness and definitely implications for Low Back Pain and rehabilitation.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274090550_The_Effect_of_Long_Term_Isometric_Training_on_CoreTorso_Stiffness

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Benjamin-Lee-18/publication/274090550_The_Effect_of_Long_Term_Isometric_Training_on_CoreTorso_Stiffness/links/614a1069a595d06017e11aa8/The-Effect-of-Long-Term-Isometric-Training-on-Core-Torso-Stiffness.pdf?origin=publication_detail

At this point it is important to acknowledge the work of Stuart McGill in rehabilitation. And the crossover to sports conditioning. And going a bit deeper, I was privy in early 2000 to some work with AFL footballers to dynamic ultra sound evaluation of transverse abdominus, pelvic floor and multifidus. The research by people like Julie Hides lead the way. Below is a study on cricketers and lower back pain. Essentially this is rehabilitation. Obviously everything working in synchrony with a fast bowler also improves performance. But for this article need to put this stuff in a bucket. What I did see in AFL was some N= a few correlations with inability to fire up TA etc and problems with groins and lower back. I think it is very important in this article to acknowledge fine tuning is sometimes required in athletes with lower back pain/groins and even hamstrings. And this is not forum to debate whether “switching on TA” with ultrasound is useful. But it is naive to go down meathead way and say some Jefferson deadlifts will cure your back pain. (might for a few). But for the purpose of this article let’s assume we have a healthy athlete. We are trying to hit a tennis ball harder, smack a baseball or throw a discus 80 metres.

https://www.jospt.org/doi/abs/10.2519/jospt.2008.2658

So where does this leave us? I can show you hundreds of videos of throwers, tennis players and other similar athletes doing heavy duty rotational exercises. And I remember having huge obliques as a hammer thrower (and a strong back!) doing all forms of rotational stuff. Probably the stabilisation work was done doing good mornings or other weighted lifts. McGill jumps to a conclusion that after his study using Muy Thai athletes, that isometric or anti rotation exercises are superior. Tell that to a 23 metre shot putter! I did find a pilot study recently that did some nice evaluation on muscles involved in rotation and anti rotation exercises. Cannot find a thing otherwise. And in their view rotational exercises came up best. Below is a link and their poster. Now tiny study, but I liked the way they evaluated muscle activation more than McGills method of evaluating stiffness.

https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/ijesab/vol8/iss9/12/

So where does this leave us? The evidence for using anti rotational exercises for performance is basically zero. This has crept into social media and exercises look funky. But for rehabilitation and/or maybe some introductory “prefab” stuff obviously there is evidence of low level activation. So with many injuries, starting with anti rotational exercises is valid. But even there. Need to move on.

But taking this concept into high velocity, high force sports where huge recoils are occurring at fast speeds. Nah! Contact times for elite 100 metre runners are under 100 millisecond. Take this concept to obliques in explosive rotational sports. Once feet are planted and obliques on stretch? Not long to do their thing!

Maybe Pallof Presses (and variations) are some use for young athletes. Plus they learn to brace and organise movements. Good. But movement is important in kids. So there should be a limit on static isometric exercises. I once saw a test at the Northern Territory Institute of Sport. Maximum side plank time. One 15 year old super fit girl grunted her way to 2 minutes on both sides. But was left clutching a sore shoulder (she was in pain) after side plank. That’s not a core exercise!

That’s it! Leave this one up to you. Otherwise this article is too long. But my opinion. This (Pallof Press) is a social media exercise when directed at athletes. Lots of claims with no evidence. With caveat. As I noted very useful in rehabilitation or sometimes warmups for activation or in very young athletes. Not just Pallof Presses but all forms of isometric core/torso exercises. Also some sports such as endurance cycling hold extreme positions for prolonged times. So again there is relevance. But also the role of hip mobility is critical in these athletes (and their aerodynamic positions), so lots to consider.

Last video. New Zealand Shot Putter Valerie Adam’s doing some rotational stuff. She was ok! Multiple gold medals at Olympics, Worlds, Commonwealth Games. Cannot find a Pallof Press variation that would help throw over 20 metres.

March 17, 2023 Posted by Loris Bertolacci | Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Razor Curls Exercise . Why use them?

The razor curl really came to my attention when this video was posted of GWS AFL player Dylan Shiels. It went viral. It does look impressive. Before that I had never seen it. And remember when I trained in Europe in late 70’s we were doing Nordic hamstring lowers then. With a friend in 1984 we built a glute ham machine at Preston Athletics Club. I read everything then and now. Maybe the razor curl was used for hundreds years? But I had not seen it.

When I searched Google Scholar the first paper I could find on this exercise was in 2009.
Link is below. Nothing before that. Could be wrong.

https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/fulltext/2009/11000/comparison_of_hamstring_and_gluteus_muscles.10.aspx

Interesting how that words “functional” and “real world” crept into their abstract. Quotes from their paper below.

“However, if one wants to fully train the hamstrings functionally, one should focus on the razor curl. Due to its functionality, the razor curl is designed to increase hamstring contractibility by placing the hip into flexion.”

“More importantly, the razor curl provides one a training method of eccentric hamstring contractions and simultaneous dynamic hip movement. This provides one with a “real-world method” of hamstring functional training in the athletic position as opposed to the prone hamstring curl.”

Below is a further summary from this study. To be honest I could not summarise in my words, what they were getting at. So just planted the excerpt here.

“The razor curl places the hip at 90°, thus placing the hamstring on stretch for optimal production of knee flexion. In addition to placing the athlete in a functional position when performing the razor curl, one is also training the hamstrings eccentrically at the knee. Training the hamstrings eccentrically in a position that also provides for gluteal activation provides the athlete the chance to develop neuromuscular conditioning in the functional athletic position. The net effect of this neuromuscular grooving is to provide the athlete the opportunity to place the hip and knee in the optimum position with hamstring activation to protect the ACL.”

In fairness to the authors whilst they talk about functional positions, their results do show that medial hamstrings were targeted more in this exercise. And thus they go on to talk about the relevance of medial hamstrings (thus this exercise) in ACL rehabilitation and prevention. Table is below. Interesting though if we fast forward to social media now, this exercise is posted often as a crucial one in hamstring injury rehabilitation and prevention. But we all should know the relevance of biceps femoris long head in hamstrings in sprinting. So that’s a clue to the rest of this blog article.

I found this interesting study from India. It compared the modified razor curl (assume a harop curl nowadays) with the conventional Nordic hamstring. It looked at performance tests. Maximum lifts, 40 yard dash and a back arch superman test. Their conclusion was that the Nordic was best for lifting and sprinting tests whilst the modified razor curl would be better for core strength. Below is their conclusion:

https://medical.advancedresearchpublications.com/index.php/CHCMJ/article/view/1066

“Finally, it can be concluded that if players need to improve strength as well as support muscles such as longissimus and multifidus, modified RAZOR curl was highly recommended. In the case of players who wanted specific power and strength training, Nordic hamstring curl was the perfect option.”

I am not going to comment on the robustness of this study. But it starts leading us to some questions. Obviously the razor curl is different to the modified razor curl. Once you have flexed upper back to 90 degrees in modified razor then hamstrings are contracting as one pushes out. Suppose my question is why do the razor curl and harop curl? If there is a “core” component how useful anyway? Often modified razor curls are presented as a progression to nordics. But we know there a a huge number of regressions we can do with nordics. Using a Swiss ball in front, bands etc.

An extension of the 2009 paper on the razor curl by the same author a few years later, was promoting the modified razor curl (harop curl) as a suitable torso or core exercise. Link is below

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3273882/

What is interesting is the small “get out clause” in this paper where the authors suggest this is only a low level torso exercise. Quote below from paper.

“The results of the current study must be interpreted with caution when determining if strengthening of the trunk musculature could occur during perfor- mance of this exercise. Although the multifidus and longissimus demonstrated moderately strong activity and the greatest of the muscles examined, the level of activity produced by the modified RAZOR exercise may not be sufficient to provide a muscular strength- ening stimulus. Previous authors have reported that muscular strengthening requires 50-60%MVIC.33. “

After this there was not much evidence on the razor curl or harop curl to be found. But certainly given the funkiness of the movements, lots of claims on social media about the effectiveness of these exercises for hamstring health. Like all exercises, of course already these exercises are ok. They do something it seems. But given the lack of time athletes have in the gymnasium, can we get better bang for buck?

Fast forward to 2019 and a recent paper looked at the effectiveness of the razor curl versus other hamstring exercises. And the methods used seemed more robust than previous papers I mentioned.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30629773/

So it seems that the razor curl as researched in this paper has the least impact on biceps femoris long head! So this would seem a pretty important finding, Why do it for hamstring injury prevention or rehabilitation? And it seems the modified razor curl is a low level core torso/exercise. Below are some conclusions from this paper on the RHC (Razor Hamstring Curl).

“Finally, the RHC as a preventative exercise for HSI may have limitations, given it induces negligible BFlh architectural change or increases in NHE strength.”

“However, as there is no evidence to suggest that improving RHC strength may offset the risk of future HSI, it remains to be seen if the implementation of this exercise has its place in injury prevention practices.”

I couldn’t find much else searching Google Scholar on this exercise. Correct me if there is. But of course. Social media is awash with razor curls and harop curls and big claims. Maybe a few back extensions superset with a few Nordic hamstrings or eccentric leg curls might be a better use of S&C time for an athlete?

So conclusion? Of course doing these exercises might help a bit. But be aware that (so far) there is no evidence that they do what many on social media claim. And many on social media create their own jargon with words like proximal and distal and isometric clouding the posts. But the current level of evidence is tiny, with the most recent paper I could find putting a question mark on the exercise for hamstrings. They might just be another exercise that has crept into exercise selections. But an exercise were evidence (up till 2023?) does not back up social media hype. And remember. Despite all the hamstring gurus out there (and increase in exercises) we have not seen decreases in hamstring injuries. My opinion is there is too much emphasis on trying to find the “holy grail” exercise as against keeping it simple. IE; do some nordics/eccentric leg curls/back extensions/RDLs bit of hips etc. But then focussing more on multi factorial issues surrounding running, mechanics, dosages and proper objective return to play running programs. Seems a disproportionate percentage of time spent on the exercise side of this injury.

March 7, 2023 Posted by Loris Bertolacci | Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Hip Lock Exercise. Why use it?

This exercise has become quite popular. Before Franz Bosch had popularised the name I had never heard of it. Yet I was prescribing single leg squats, hitch lifts, progressive run drills, Pilates and low and high intensity plyometrics to improve “hip stability” for want of better word. Like the hamstring tantrums in last review of exercises, the hip lock has many variations. So I think it is important to define for this blog article what a hip lock exercise is. My interpretation of the hip lock, as popularised in social media and in Franz Bosch publications. A number of exercises that are similar are just running drills and not strictly a hip lock. For example rapid switching exercises in free standing. I will then try a find a written definition. I remember in 1987 buying a Physiotherapy book with rehabilitation exercises. I liked an exercise in the book. This was lying on the ground at almost full extension and doing a one leg bridge both dynamically and isometric. It now is often called a Bosch glute bridge. Scratch my head a little sometimes.

Okay let’s find a few you tubes and examples of how I have interpreted hip locks. First is a you tube promoting a Bosch trip to Australia and some excellent stuff. Plus the hip lock principle interspersed.

From this you tube I took an image with a hip model that probably highlights the hip lock principle more.
I need to define this because my interpretation of the hip lock exercise is to ultra hitch the free leg. Obviously it is a one leg exercise. And immediately the notion of gluteus medius activation arises. But to get that much lift on free side would suggest “other muscles” are contributing. Intuitively that looks something like quadratus lumborum doing the hitching? Before I move forward. All good exercises. Tough. Lots of stuff going on. The question I will ask is how specific to running is a hip lock as shown? And is there a more efficient, evidence based way to enhance running? In this case, maintain pelvic integrity.

I would like to ask an expert in functional anatomy or biomechanics or kinesiology if gluteus medius can actually hitch a hip like in the photos below.

Below are a few links to Nathan Kiely excellent resources and what he calls hip locks. At times I thought looking at some of his “hip lock” exercises, they were just exercises like stepups done with good form. Other times he demonstrated what for purpose of this article will be defined as a hip lock.

https://fb.watch/iVHE18FxCo/

https://fb.watch/iVH-FgI558/

Time and time again we see images of athletes at maximum speed doing what is deemed a hip lock to justify the exercise (even though 99% of these athletes never did a hip lock as defined by me). The guy on right (red) though better hurry up and hitch that hip! High knees is often seen as a product of bouncing off the track added to hip flexion. This position is a millisecond point in time and there are lots of things happening simultaneously at early stance phase of running.

The difficulty in writing this blog article is defining a hip lock exercise. If you go back to the video you will find some dynamic switching drills and bounding drills with constraints. I am sure the Bosch process is to go from static concentric hip lock exercises and progress to dynamic exercises with stretch shortening eccentric movements. But in my opinion, one would not take some of contrived hip lock positions in wall drills for example onto a field into contrived bounding exercises with constraints for example. Well that’s my opinion!

Ok. So let’s cut to the chase. What happens in running? What is the role of gluteus medius?

I wrote an E Book on hamstring rehabilitation in 2007. The pictures of the 2 runners are David Wojcinski and Joel Corey from the Geelong Football Club AFL. These are in their first year AFL. I screened them at 90+ speed. Joel Corey is the classic glute medius issue. His general eccentric strength ie: quads etc was ok. But he did have lots of “core” issues. And some injuries. The strategy for a year or two was to work on “Pilates”, single stability work and integrate with running drills and low level plyometrics. This was along with classical weights. By his third year he was stable and obviously a player who could sprint and endure all the game. Check his record! He was a star. So by then (late 1990’s) there was already a lot of evidence on what exercises to prescribe to attack this issue. And how to progress to 100% acceleration and velocity. And fatigue! So the progression could be from hitch lifts to plyometrics to running drills to speed. Check the little table. Obviously given contact times in high speed running/maximum speed are reduced. Thus the ability to stabilise the hips needs to be trained at progressively faster speeds and forces. But there should be no compromise for poor technique through the progressions.

So let’s first look at some evidence about what can lead to pelvic issues related to gluteus medius and minimus in particular and then how it relates to running.

The Prehab Guys website is an excellent resource. And in this article they show lots of exercises to strengthen Gluteus Medius and hips when related to the Trendelenburg Gait. They nicely describe the history of this test.

“Quick History Lesson: In 1895 Freidrich Trendelenburg described the Trendelenburg sign as weakness of hip abductor muscles in reference to congenital dislocations of the hip and progressive muscular atrophy. Fast forward to today: most orthopedic and physiotherapy textbooks describe this sign as a test of hip function.”

And we can find a lot of evidence on the Trendelenburg Test and implications. Below is a nice you tube on pelvic drop, Trendelenburg test and exercises.

There are lots of papers grading gluteus medius activation. Suffice to say that being on one leg always kicks activation up. And single leg squat is usually graded very high. And in my opinion this probably reflects a bit closer to what is happening in running. Rather than what the classic hip lock exercise looks like. The gluteus medius can abduct the hip to level but unlikely it can take hip into extreme positions as we see in the hip lock exercise. Well after reading all the anatomy books, that’s my opinion!

Below is the link to this paper classifying exercises. There are many other papers doing the same thing. Below is an example of % muscle activation. And below is a you tube describing the function of GMed.

https://www.jospt.org/doi/10.2519/jospt.2009.2796

The question is can the gluteus medius further contract the pelvis to tilt the whole other side as in a hip lock exercise? Or are other muscles in the trunk simply lifting the hip?

There is a huge evidence base in this area from Trendelenburg test to how the gluteus medius functions when running. One nice paper (Running related gluteus medius function in health and injury: A systematic review with meta-analysis) puts things into perspective a little. Obviously the whole reason for the hip lock exercise is to ultimately transfer to running at all speeds. When you read some of the grabs from this study the whole notion of motor control starts to become important. The muscle has to fire in situations that have very short contact times and huge eccentric forces. Thus like all exercises that need to transfer to the field there has to be progrsssions. Obviously in the initial video showcasing Bosch tour, one can see the progressions to fancy bounding and drills often with constraints.

Running related gluteus medius function in health and injury: A systematic review with meta-analysis

https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-electromyography-and-kinesiology

“The results support the notion that the function of GMed in running is primarily to assist with absorbing the ground reaction force in the loading phase (Hamner et al., 2010; Lenhart et al., 2014)”

“to support coronal plane pelvic alignment during the early stance phase of running”

“mechanism of the hip in healthy or injured athletes. For example, increasing running speed, particularly > 7m/s requires larger hip muscle amplitude (Bartlett et al., 2014; Chumanov”

So whether the hip lock is a contrived exercise utilising trunk muscles to pull the hip up does not make it a bad exercise. Anything an athlete does on one leg will fire gluteus medius. It is good work. But is it the most effective progression?

As far back as the 1970s I used the Gerard Mach drills then in the early 90’s bought all of Loren Seagrave’s cassettes which helped me a lot. Below is a You Tube advertising the Speed Dynamics Course. Looks like lots of level hips to me when watching the athletes in the video. Running drills are obviously low intensity eccentric exercises that mimic the running action. When progressing from some single leg squats and wall drills (in the context of “gluteus medius” development), run drills provide both technical and conditioning opportunities to move forward. Low level plyometrics (and high intensity plyometrics also) are valuable tools to continue the progressions at higher intensities. Remember the notion of motor control I mentioned before as we progress to maximal accelerations and speed. Obviously businesses like Altis now put out really good information on technique, run drills etc. I buy stuff like that still to update.

When I searched for research on hip locks the only one I could find other than Franz Bosch books and internet articles was a paper on diving in football. Correct me if I am wrong. Link is below.

https://commons.nmu.edu/isbs/vol40/iss1/71/

So a question I raise to those more qualified in functional anatomy than me. Can the gluteal muscles really tilt the pelvis this much as in picture below? Or are trunk muscles lifting the pelvis as in pictures of hip locks early in this blog article? I fail to see this amount of range possible with GMed. And also the other question is about the shots we see of sprinters in supposed hip locks. Are these just products of large forces from the track added to hip flexion. Just suggesting. Don’t send me hate mail please. We know that high knees is as much a product of rebound as it is of hip flexion.

Summary. Nothing wrong with hip lock exercises. As I said. Any one leg exercise is good. But are they contrived? And is there a more logical evidence based progression? From gymnasium exercises to running drills and plyometrics then to running and sports? I think so. That’s my opinion. The hip lock concept ( like the hamstring tantrums) seems to cover too many bases. But fits nicely into a product to sell. And gluteus medius (and minimus) is a well researched occurrence in stabilising the hip in running. Is “hip lock” sort of (but not quite) the same thing but packaged nicely with a nice ribbon?

After adequate strength is achieved in prone positions or using dynamometers or other tools with respect to Abduction/GMed it is time to MOVE ON. In my experience a more specific progression to target what a hip lock aims at, is to start with variations of single leg squats. Free standing varied range single leg squats, single squats to bench again progressed with depth, skater squats etc. The research validates this. Added to high activation of GMed is the eccentric phase of a single leg squat which is not part of hip lock gym based exercises. Isometrics is good stuff. But no proof better than combined concentric/eccentric exercises. Then ideally move to very low level single leg jumps and hops and progress or regress as needed. Some form of testing single leg is useful here. Because if GMed is strong in prone tests, collapsing at early stance in high intensity could be due to other factors. Here we start combining motor control, eccentric qualities and GMed firing. Add run drills from dribbles to a skips to variations of ‘high knees”. All types of drills. Again we can see the athlete in action and adjust techniques with drills. But also condition the athlete like plyometrics. Then obviously assess the athlete running and sprinting.

I leave you with this. Jonathan Edwards jumping 18.29. Crazy forces in each phase. Huge eccentric forces coupled with of course the ability to stabilise the hips. It all happens very quickly. Combination of motor control, power and stability (could find more words). I don’t want to use the word hip lock in this situation. Makes no sense to me.

March 1, 2023 Posted by Loris Bertolacci | Uncategorized | 2 Comments

The future of High Performance programs in the AFL in Australia post COVID-19

Sad time in modern world history and I wish a discussion like this could be avoided. But reality is the AFL landscape and elite team sports will be forced to change. No one knows what impact this will have. Sporting teams have to start putting plans in place on how they are going to set up the team behind the team to get the product rolling again.

My AFL career started with Essendon Football Club in 1987 in a Strength and Conditioning Role. This was the first year of AFL but players still worked. I stayed at Essendon till 1993 and after the club won a premiership went to Collingwood for a year as High Performance Manager. I was deemed a guru! We featured in a famous game in Perth called Mission Impossible against West Coast Eagles in 1994. Almost won! Back to Essendon as High Performance Manager 1995 to 1998 then 8 years at Geelong Football Club in the same role. By 2006 when I left, the club had featured in 5 finals in 2004 & 2005 and this was the nucleus of the great team of 2007 and 2011. I also was a consultant at the Western Bulldogs in 2006 and 2007, delivering a report on their 2006 ACL injury plight and assisting with their speed and strength program and staff development in 2007. 

I have been lucky since to work in many sports and also at the development and sub elite level of AFL football. Now in China I am assisting teams with strength and conditioning at the Shanghai Institute of Sport. You can check my CV on  this blog and also my Linkedin profile.

One of the first job cuts we saw in this crazy period with Covid-19 was in elite sports. It was reported that 80% of High Performance staff were sadly and hopefully short term laid off. This hits home when compared to the explosion of Exercise Science courses and High Performance courses in Australia and the number of highly qualified, skilled  and competent people and graduates competing for these valued positions.

The best case scenario is that Australia can recover quickly economically and that most of these people can get back to doing what they love and do so well, even if with less financial reward. The worst case scenario may be a return to High Performance programs in the AFL, similar to those that evolved from 1993 to approximately 2002. The show will go on but the worst case will be that the team behind the team will change drastically for a while. 

Will the product on the field be drastically reduced? I believe we have to look at the law of diminishing returns to answer this. How much did each increase in Football Departments since the “arms race” started in earnest in the mid 2000’s impact performance on the field? 

So what did the AFL football department look like in 1993? At Essendon, Danny Corcoran was the administrative manager but at night swapped his suit for tracksuit and was on the track. I was doing all the strength and conditioning and rehabilitation part time and Oscar Kenda took speed. We had the odd dietician coming in and out. That was it. I am not going to describe the medical side but to be honest the evolution with medical, massage and specialists has been the same. So in 1993 what was the cost? If we leave Danny out (because he was Football manager) it was maybe $30,000 maximum $50,000 and in 1993 Essendon won the premiership. At that time in my part time role I did all the skinfolds, all the rehabilitation with return to play and all the S&C, plus any sports science we used at the time. At the same time I worked full time as a gym manager. 

In 1994 Collingwood undertook a rapid transition to become one of the first full time programs in AFL. Here I was the full time High Performance Manager and had a full time assistant (which was unheard of then) plus one part timer. The club had a consultant dietician and I think that was it. With on costs, staffing this program cost approximately. $100,000 to $130,000. I do not have exact budgets but the trend is apparent.

At Essendon in 1995 again I was the only full timer, this time with 2 part time assistants plus consultants, dieticians and psychologists who back then would not have been getting paid much. I really think that the costs to staff that program again came in under $100,000. Not 100% sure but not $200,000!.  This remained the same in 1996 and interestingly I employed Andrew Russell (who has won flags at Hawthorn and Port Adelaide as a High Performance Manager and now at Carlton) in 1996 as a part timer on $20 an hour. By then I had heart rate monitors, lactate analysers and other sports science gear and I was doing it all again with a few interns assisting me.

1997 saw a massive change at Essendon where with  CEO Peter Jackson, we organized a trip to the Australian Institute of Sport where we spent a week looking at evidence based best practice in all areas. On the trip we had fitness, sports medicine and coaching staff plus management in attendance. Essendon went full time and revamped its facilities but in the fitness and sports science area we still only had one full timer up until 1998. After that the landscape throughout the AFL changed rapidly and some clubs started spending more money. However the big revenue from TV rights had yet to kick in, facilities were still pretty basic and many clubs still did not have many full time roles. 

Working at Geelong from 1998 to 2003 I was at a club that was cash strapped due to debt uncovered in 1999. After that the High Performance department had a very tight budget. Not much more than $100,000 I reckon for fitness staff and equipment. I remember my brother in law Gus Puopolo, who is a Geelong supporter, made some power racks for the club and I luckily knew where to buy very cheap second hand gear due to my gym background. In 1999 and 2000 I only had 2 part time staff helping me. By 2001 I did have one  full timer but their pay was in the vicinity of $32,000 plus one or two part timers on casual rates. We did have a very small budget for sports science but again I was the Sports Scientist, S&C coach, rehabilitation for return to play and High Performance Manager all rolled into one. 

So that paints a picture of how teams were prepared in that era. It did vary. Some clubs like West Coast Eagles, Swans and Essendon were evolving quickly but the Arms race in fitness and sports science had not started yet.

The million dollar question is how much has the product on the field improved due to the massive High Performance programs now? Obviously it has improved a lot. But a lot in sport can be 3%. High Performance staff numbers and costs were skyrocketing until the AFL put in place a “soft cap” on spending in footy departments. Players now are leaner, more individually and specifically prepared. Budgets in High Performance programs have gone up a lot more than 10%. In some cases 10 times more now than the era I have described.! 

By the mid 2000’s we could afford GPS units and dieticians and rehabilitation staff plus some specialists like tackling coaches. It was obvious in the late 80’s and early 90’s some players were awesome athletes and comparable to now but others simply could play footy, squat and bench press 60kg, have high skinfolds and would not survive in today’s game unless they improved their conditioning. 

High performance programs in any elite sport worldwide are a very recent phenomenon in the world history of sport and it is difficult to not ask the question how much has the “Arms Race” in AFL Football Departments produced a better product. 5% or 20%? Probably can only subjectively answer that given the impact of assistant coaches, medical staff, video technology, facilities.

With everyone looking for the 1%ers the law of diminishing returns ensured that we were possibly reaching a ceiling. So in the worst case scenario will we see a return to less full time staff? Time will tell. One model I used at Geelong in 2005, when we were making the transition to having some cash to splash around, was to have 2 full time staff but have a large contingent of part timers who had specific roles from sports science to speed development to Strength  & Conditioning and Pilates for example. All up probably represented 75% of my Assistants full time salary. In the worst case scenario this is a model that would make things tight but can work to underpin the training needs of an AFL team, and I think the product would look much the same, plus keep current staff aligned to elite programs.

What the public wants to see when this crazy time in history ends, is their champion players playing at their best. The game on the ground is what matters most, the fans will return and they will want entertainment. So administrators need to carry the burden also.  

It will be difficult for current staff within the system to visualize or implement necessary changes given downsizing is always tough. And this is new ground for managers. Many have been seduced by the hype surrounding sports science and gurus.  I hope Australia bounces back economically ahead of the world and we can get the best case scenario occurring so that a lot of my mates are back doing what they do best. 

No one can predict the future at this stage let alone what will happen in the AFL High Performance system. It is not high on the agenda given the health and economic issues confronting the world. But given there are best case and worst case scenarios I am sure clubs in the AFL, and around the world are starting to plan for options on how to set up their departments in the future. I assume eyes will be on China where the CBA Basketball competition was supposed to start soon but has been put back as has football (soccer). They have commercial needs just like clubs in Australia and  some overseas staff have been asked to come back to China to prepare the team. Sure their progress will be interesting. 

GIven I spanned many eras in AFL High Performance settings I am more than happy to connect and share what I have learnt in football departments on how to deliver an efficient program with minimal resources. I just left the scene when the Arms Race was starting.  Let’s hope again this feedback and expertise is not needed. But the High Performance AFL landscape could be a bit different for a little while. The AFL product is strong though and the public love their footy. I do not like talking about the “new normal”. One constant in life is change and as the economy heals so will football departments.

April 2, 2020 Posted by Loris Bertolacci | Uncategorized | Leave a comment

2 weeks above 80% compliancy with Social Distance is key. Evidence from China.

Chief Medical Officer Professor Brendan Murphy gave a grim time frame for Australians regarding the importance of social distancing. “That’s why they have to be for the long haul. For several months,”

Confusing advice. Yes controls for months but I saw Social Distancing relaxed in Shanghai Wednesday. Controls, yes, as in my case where I flew across Provinces from Kunming to Shanghai so company rule was 2 weeks in a room.

I had a long chat with a guy in ADMIN at the Sports Institute in Chongming yesterday. I showed him pictures of my day in Shanghai where people were mingling and laws about Social Distancing and Masks were relaxed whilst temperature checks were everywhere and obviously people who had Covid19 or were wary did not dare go out coz well might be their last day! Reasonable deterrent. He said that once the virus lockdown occurred in late Jan they basically looked at 2 weeks as being the critical period. Obviously in this society above 80% compliancy (which is needed) was easily achieved. Schools are still shut but businesses like Dentists are re-opening. Sports planning to take off in a month. Context not sure. Business has taken a hammering.

So its tough when you see beach scenes in Melbourne yesterday and chatting to a friend in Italy (Lombardy) who said too many Italians simply do not want to comply still. >20%! The magic figure. He is an economist. He is so frustrated. The research and statistics tell you simply what to do! Its KISS. Keep it simple stupid. And his old dad is a retired doctor and back in hospitals helping so he is spooked. 2 weeks!

SO > 80% compliancy= some normalcy in 2 weeks. FARK ME! Now will this rebound in China? IMO no but obviously history will tell. Lack of herd immunity/release shackles? Who knows. But why not follow this advice and understand they locked it away in Hubei and nailed it in other cities ATM. I was skeptical at first but believe they have. No use blaming them ATM just follow their best practice.

PIC BELOW-This dude said this on March 20th-Not sure if Western countries listened!: “The head of a Chinese Red Cross delegation helping Italy respond to the coronavirus crisis says people aren’t sufficiently adhering to lockdown measures and warns the only way to stop the virus spread is by shutting down all economic activities.”

Armed with my APP saying I was deemed healthy I was allowed to travel an hour into Shanghai by bus/bus/metro/taxis plus go into offices and eat out. Then allowed to come back with my ID into Institute again and mingle with athletes! They must be pretty confident. The athletes will be allowed home again on weekends (as normal) from 2nd week April. They have been in lockdown (but excellent conditions here in Chongming) in Institute since Jan 23rd.

2 weeks of discipline (going for walks in neighbourhood by yourself OR with doggie- go fark yourself-thats not hardship) seems a great price to pay OZ to get a stunning result and show the western world Aussies are the best . Then repair the economy and get working again. And importantly have done some basic Maths and understand the word exponential.

March 28, 2020 Posted by Loris Bertolacci | Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Mindset, Lockdown and Quarantine in China.

I write this more to explain the stages of my emotions, how I perceived this situation and how I changed or evolved my coping strategies or even perceptions as it all evolved.

When the first information started coming out in China about Covd19 I remember being really rattled. I had a flight booked for early February for Holidays in Australia. It was mid January and the Coach at the Kunming Altitude Training Centre told me we had cancelled our move from there to Guanzhou due to the virus. We were at a large institute in Kunming at an altitude of 1900m finishing a phase of training. My emotions were at first to get the hell out of China asap. Things didn’t change too much for a week. When I was told the Institute would go into total lockdown on Monday 27th January I panicked because I knew then already I had to cancel my flight home in early February due to the massive uncertainty. I organized this with staff in Shanghai and never forget a message I got on Wechat. Still at that stage no-one had any idea what was about to unleash. So I rebooked my holidays to late February. I had contract negotiations coming up in March which meant I had to be in China. Was starting to get messy.

I asked our manager if I could get some supplies like coffee and soap and other needs at a supermarket the night before the Institute went into lockdown. Sunday night. Eerie. After what I had read about the virus and its ability to infect I was extremely worried about leaving the compound. Totally different to the ‘Bondi Beach” mentality of many Australians I think being in China and considering it the epicentre of the virus, already had me spooked and emotional. I did not have a “she’ll be right” mentality because I thought WTF am I doing here. But that night we ventured out into Kunming City. Ghost town already. Almost zero traffic. This is me outside the Supermarket. Cold night. No people. And I was spooked already scared of touching anything or being close to people.

I remember getting a trolley and realizing I had touched it then immediately grabbing my tracksuit and wrapping it around the handle. Inside the supermarket few people. Only supermarkets and pharmacies were open. Already that was it. Even at the counter I was so wary being close to anybody. Again this was because I perceived that I was in the “epicentre” of the virus. Little did I realize that Hubei was the epicentre plus that Kunming would get very low statistics later on due to measures in place. And due to what I saw that night. A ghost town.

The next morning we were given trays and told we had to eat in out rooms. Told to pick up our food with masks on. At first I was so angry to have to do this. And the food choices were reduced automatically. My emotions and reactions were interesting. I was fuming, feeling socially deprived. One of our liberties had been removed. I was so pissed about being in this position. Last thing I wanted to do was stay in China. And the thought of getting my temperature checked three times a day rattled me. Apart from the fear of being recorded high it just seemed such an imposition. I was so annoyed to be in this situation and wanted to go home.

I used to walk at about 10am after taking a session with athletes then at 11.15 would go and pick up my lunch. Because it was quite sunny by then I was sweating so I would stay in my room and wash my face with cold water and fan myself because I was spooked about recording a high temperature. Comical now, but at that point I thought WTF will happen if I am high? The steel tray even got me given how sterile it looked. Little did I know what awaits other countries still.

On Monday morning January 27th the Institute was put into total lockdown. It is a big place. Probably a 3km walk around. Very pretty. Lots of tracks and “nooks & crannies” But reality is I felt I was imprisoned. Little did I know what awaited me and the rest of the world. Being locked in really hit me. Sure I knew I was safer from the virus lurking outside but it was something I simply had not encountered before. And at that point it seemed dangerous simply being in China.

As the days rolled on in Kunming I did have to keep working. I was extremely happy to stay away from people because already we had been warned that Social Distancing and washing hands was critical and signs appeared everywhere. By early February I was washing my hands 10 times a day and simply avoiding humans. There were some odd situations with masks and hygiene though. Athletes and coaches always wore masks when walking around. But the gym was busy with athletes because it was crowded. No masks. Everyone touching everything. Spooked me. I washed my hands with soap multiple times a session. Of course all the athletes were being tested and all were behind “barbed wire” fences so the likelihood of transmission was less but I was so wary. My reference point was being in China. I still think in Australia for some they think they are 100% safe.

But as it became apparent that the team was not going to move for months I settled into a pattern with lifestyle and realized that I had to use the time to stay fit and healthy. Reality was that the Institute surroundings are so pretty so I simply started to walk more and pump iron more. I found a playground to do bodyweight sessions which became a refuge and kept hoping I could go home late February to Australia for 2 weeks holidays. Deep down I knew my hopes of going home were fading. So to be honest lots of February I simply walked twice a day around the venue and started some projects online whilst working with the 2 teams.

I did become obsessed with looking at the Statistics online in the Chinese Database in February. What struck was me the low numbers of Virus in the province of Yunnan where the City of Kunming is in the South of China. The statistics for Kunming never got above 100. Versus the epicentre Hubei. More so I realized that I was safe. Safe behind closed gates, added to being in a city where the statistics were low. Yes a bit wary about the accuracy of the statistics but I still believe they reflect an accurate trend for the situation in China. Feeling safer was a massive relief and by then I had adapted to all the changes to lifestyle in the institute with temperatures and meals. In fact understood how thorough they were.

But the frustration remained with going home and again I had to change flights to late March in the scant hope things would improve. With the situation in Italy escalating in Codogno and South Korea and Iran it started being obvious that it was just a hope. Plus flying meant I had to do several flights and stopovers and be in quarantine when I came back to China. I was so frustrated because I simply wanted to see my family.

My next stress point came when I was told I had to fly to Shanghai in early March to sign my contract and get a new visa. I simply now did not want to fly domestically because I felt safe within the institute. It was weird. Plus I was told that if I flew provinces the rule was 2 weeks in quarantine in Shanghai in a room then 2 weeks in a room when I returned to Kunming! So strict here. The thought of 2 weeks in a room totally spooked me. I tried every avenue to avoid this. But before I knew it I was driving out the institute to the airport.

What struck me in Kunming when I drove to the airport was the amount of traffic. That night in late January when I went to the supermarket not a car in sight. The airport was busy. A guy coughed behind me at check in and I glared at him in my Loris tough face. I tried to not touch anything or go close to anyone. But so many people flying. Again a reflection that the tide had turned here. But it took ages to get through all the security checks and temperature checks and I had to download an APP on Wechat with a code to declare I was healthy.

The plane was packed. I had a family and young bay in seats next to me. Still thought I would get infected and was pissed at having to be exposed to this after months in lockdown. And halfway through the flight FML the baby started vomiting! Wow infection control. I had to stand up and wriggle in and out and thought WTF is going on.

When I got to Shanghai the protocol after landing was exhaustive. Multiple checks. APPS to be checked, things to be signed. And looking forward to 2 weeks in quarantine in a room. I was not happy. Added to fact I felt I had been exposed to multiple groups and risk factors which I had avoided in the Institute and by not flying home to Australia. I was dreading the quarantine.

But it is amazing. Withing the 2 weeks I have been in a room my reference points, emotions, perceptions and even opinions have shifted markedly. As the  2 weeks evolved inside the room my fear or even panic was for Australia, Italy and the fact that everyone was repeating the same mistakes China did early.  Norman Swan was the only credible voice in the media. I was appalled at the AFL for not reinforcing the need to Social Distance in Australian Society. Not about playing. I was perplexed at Italy.  I became obsessed with following the predictable political bullshit on the media.

In the first 2 days I was really angry at being stuck in a room also. Verging on panic. This reflected my attitude.

But within 2 days I again assessed my situation and altered my mindset. I shifted my goals to being active  doing 12,000 steps a day and doing an exercise circuit daily. I didn’t always get to 12,000 but that was aim.

Plus one lesson I did learn in Coaching was be yourself. Well because of that I decided to post what I think are funny but pertinent images of myself exercising in my room. Plus it became another task I had to complete daily. Plus responses on Social Media fueled my ego. Some people were worried about my sanity. HA. But I did this for my sanity!

And another lesson I learnt was to appreciate the little things a bit. I was lucky to have a balcony and in the afternoon the Spring sun shone through. Fresh air and a nice view were in my opinion  a game changer given my situation. So if you are housebound in Australia then seriously you have a garden!

So pretty worried when I see the stuff like Bondi Beach and just hope that in Australia we have been spared the worst given isolation. But my whole focus shifted to being concerned about the situation in Australia.

The experience for me or impact for me is how quickly I shifted my radar or reference points and how quickly I had to adapt to circumstances. Lockdown in an Institute seemed crazy at first in January but now was like a holiday camp. Quarantine in a room seemed unbearable at first but really just required a change in mindset then putting some short term goals in place.

I sincerely hope Australia practices Social Distancing to the MAX in the next month. There is research evidence going back years that it works. Hope the skeptics understand this and the ignorant also.

So the summary is I am ok! Look after yourself Australia.

March 22, 2020 Posted by Loris Bertolacci | Uncategorized | Leave a comment